Table A2.6: Treatment efficacies for water constituents/contaminants of aesthetic significance

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Contaminant	Coagulation	Precipitation softening	Membrane filtration	Activated carbon	Chlorination	Ion-exchange	Slow sand filtration	Air-stripping
Physical constituents
pH	pH cannot be ‘removed’ but adjusted by the use of acidic or alkaline materials. pH adjustment is used in many stages of treatment, but the adjustment needed to ensure a satisfactory pH for the consumer will be undertaken after the last process that may cause a shift in pH outside the desirable range.
Turbidity	***a <0.1NTU		***b	Other particle removal processes in Table A1.1 are also capable of achieving a better than 80% reduction in turbidity
Total dissolved solids
Colour	* to **c					**d
Metals
Aluminium
Calcium						***e
Copper	See Table A1.2
Iron	See treatments for manganese Table A1.2. The chemistries of iron and manganese allow them to be removed by the same processes. The extent of iron removal will be the same or better than that of manganese.
Magnesium						***e
Manganese	See Table A1.2
Sodium
Zinc	**f	***g		***h		***i	**j
Anions
Chloride
Sulphate						***d
Gases
Ammonia					***k		***j	***l
Hydrogen sulphide					**m
Trace organic compounds
2-Chlorophenol
1,2-Dichlorobenzene	See Table A1.4
1,4-Dichlorobenzene	See Table A1.4
2,4-Dichlorophenol
Ethylbenzene	See Table A1.4
Monochlorobenzene	See Table A1.4
Styrene	See Table A1.4
Toluene	See Table A1.4
1,2,3-Trichlorobenzene	See Table A1.4 as for total trichlorobenzenes
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene
1,3,5-Trichlorobenzene
2,4,6-Trichlorophenol	See Table A1.4
Xylene	See Table A1.4
Disinfectant
Chlorine	See Table A1.2

References Table A2.6:

a Gao et al., 2007, Separation and Purification Technol., 56, 225–230

b Chiemchaisri et al., 2005, Wat. Sci. Technol., 51, 93–100

c Amirtharajah and O’Melia, 1990, Coagulation Processes, in Water Quality and Treatment, 4th ed., American Water Works Assn., McGraw-Hill Inc., New York

d Hongue et al., 1999, Wat. Sci. Tech., 40(9), 251–221

e Sorg et al., 1999, J. Am. Wat. Wks Assn., 91(8), 85–97

f Truitt and Weber, 1979, Wat. Res., 13, 1171–1177

g Swiderska–Broz, 1991, Wat. Sci Tech., 24, 247–254

h Corapciolu and Huang, 1987, Wat. Res., 21, 1031–1044

i Vaaramaa and Lehto, 2003, Desalination, 155, 157–170

j Erb et al., 1982, Wat. Sci. Tech. 14, 641–653

k Williams and Culp, Handbook of Public Water Systems, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co, New York

l Ip and Raper, 1978, Progress in Water Technology, 10, 587–605

m White, 1986, Handbook of Chlorination, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co, New York

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