Skip to main content.

3 Environmental Issues Related to Whiteware

3.1 Environmental issues and impacts

Up to 80,000 tonnes per annum (and growing) of e-waste is potentially disposed of yearly to landfill in New Zealand. [MfE (2005)Product Stewardship & Water Efficiency Labelling - New Tools to Reduce Waste. Discussion Document. July 2005.] This figure is not further broken down to describe what proportion is represented by end-of-life whiteware.

Overseas studies have found whiteware represents approximately 60-70% of the e-waste stream by weight. [Data average from: Network Recycling (2003)CA Site WEEE Capacity in the UK: An Assessment of the Capacity of Civic Amenity Sites in the United Kingdom to Separately Collect Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment; and Industry Council for Electronic Equipment Recycling (2005)Interim Status Report on WEEE in the UK; January 2005.] Based on an estimated total potential e-waste arisings of 80,000 tonnes per annum, this indicates that whiteware could represent between 48,000 and 56,000 tonnes of waste every year in New Zealand. The reliability of this estimate is untested. There are other models for calculating arisings that suggest whiteware may be as low as 24,000 tonnes. There is no definitive data on the quantities of e-waste arising in New Zealand.

The reuse and recycling of whiteware is considered environmentally preferable to landfilling because landfilling:

  • results in the loss of valuable materials including ferrous and non-ferrous metals. To extract from landfill, process, assemble and transport these materials involves enormous amounts of resources;
  • places pressure on landfill space. Landfilled whiteware uses up land area;
  • can contain some hazardous substances. Major appliances contain fewer hazardous substances than other electronic and electrical equipment. Nevertheless, appliances (particularly older products) do contain various toxic and hazardous substances. These substances include: [Environment Australia (2001)Major Appliances Materials Project.]
    • lead and lead compounds are found in solder, notably in printed circuit boards;
    • cadmium has been used as a stabiliser in plastics and is found in some pigments/paints, and formerly in some plating, brazing alloys and bearing metals;
    • hexavalent chromium is widely used as a passivator (corrosion inhibitor) on most galvanised steel (including all corrugated iron roofing);
    • chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs were the refrigerant and the gas in the cells of the insulation in refrigerators and freezers pre-1995);
    • hydrochloroflurocarbons (HCFCs are the refrigerants used in air conditioners which are only being phased out now);
    • brominated or halogenated flame retardants are used in plastic enclosures serving as a fire safety measure for electrical equipment inside appliances;
    • oils and greases from refrigerators and other appliances.

There is the risk that these substances may leach into surrounding aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, causing both health and environmental problems. Fires at landfill sites can also result in the emission of toxic dioxins and fumes into the atmosphere from flame-retarded plastics. The presence of toxic materials also presents problems for the future remediation of landfill sites.

Most whiteware in New Zealand is not ending up in landfill. There is no reliable data on the quantities that are ending up in landfill but the opinion of the waste and recycling industry and local authorities is that up to 95% of whiteware waste is currently being recycled in New Zealand. This means that only 5% (10% to 15% at worst), and a further 30% as shredder floc, is being disposed of to landfill.

Shredder floc

Shredder floc is typically comprised of plastics, rubber, wood, paper, textiles, glass, composites, automotive fluids, refrigerants, sand, dirt, stones, ferrous and non-ferrous metals. One of the issues or concerns with floc is its heavy metal content and the potential to be mobilised through leachate in landfills. Some UK research from the late 1980s and 1990s (Warren Spring Laboratory, 1992: 28) concluded "that the levels were comparable to those from domestic refuse and hence should not cause problems at properly managed sites". The same study also reported on material studies conducted in the USA with a view to using the plastics-rich floc in polymer concrete. Although the trials showed technical promise, commercialisation was unlikely.

It is also worth noting that the current landfilling of floc fails to effectively recover a range of high-priced materials, some of which have high levels of embodied energy. There is a view among some researchers and policy makers that this loss of material and embodied energy - in addition to the cost of landfilling, the inevitable tightening of regulations, long-term viability concerns and shrinking landfill space - demands new solutions or alternatives for better managing floc. [Pacific NW Pollution Prevention Resource Centre. http://www.pprc.org/pprc/rpd/fedfund/doe/doe_oit/automobi.html]

The potential recoverability of shredder floc is currently low due to the presence of a wide mix of plastics, including flame-retarded plastics. The equipment necessary to separate materials in shredder floc is being developed elsewhere in the world, [Environmental Science & Technology Online (2006) Expanding automotive recycling to include plastics; 22 March 2006.http://pubs.acs.org/journals/esthag/index.html] but is unlikely to be economically viable in New Zealand due to the relatively low throughput of material and immature markets for recycled plastic.

It is widely acknowledged that DfE has a key role to play in maximising overall environmental performance. More specifically, a DfE strategy that follows (where practicable) the waste management hierarchy and embeds relevant waste avoidance and resource recovery features in the product has the potential to reduce end-of-life whiteware waste, including shredder floc. Design for Disassembly (DfD) and Design for Recycling (DfR) features in consumer durables are well advanced among many of the appliance, computer and consumer electronics producers. Computer modelling and specific DfD and DfR software has been commercialised to support and review product development decisions that have end-of-life implications such as floc.

In simplistic terms, if the appliance design process was chiefly driven by floc reduction then the outcome would be environmentally beneficial. However, a multitude of other drivers and design considerations dictate appliance priorities ie functionality, energy and water efficiency, cost, price and aesthetics. In other words, while DfE can help optimise what is possible and realistic, the critical phase, given current processing methods and technologies, remains the disassembly stage. Many DfE features are unable to deliver environmental gains unless the product is actually subjected to an end-of-life process, be it disassembly or otherwise.

The current scenario in New Zealand, and that for the near future, indicates the most effective way of significantly reducing floc from the whiteware shredding process is to undertake some form of initial disassembly and materials recovery pre-shredding. This would enable some of the major floc-contributing materials to be removed early in the process with a view to accumulating larger quantities of uncontaminated plastics, which, in turn, would be more appealing to plastics recyclers. The initial whiteware disassembly process underway at Fisher & Paykel's Auckland site reflects this approach.

Lifespan

A noteworthy aspect raised by Electrolux New Zealand is the issue of shortened product life span and the negative solid waste impacts associated with the non-repair of whiteware. According to Electrolux, the premature disposal of whiteware is an unnecessary outcome that can be directly attributed to business practices that lack any product stewardship objectives. While Electrolux and Fisher & Paykel use authorised service centres to repair products, there is a view that some whiteware importers are simply swapping products rather than repairing and extending product life. This is a concern to Electrolux as the service network (including spare parts availability) is offered as a "significant and necessary support for the consumer and ensures appliances are not disposed of after a short life". This particular concern raises an important product stewardship-related issue in terms of how service and repair centres can play a positive role in extending product life and deferring the potential generation of solid waste arising from end-of-life whiteware.

3.2 Overseas responses

The hazardous substances in whiteware are rapidly decreasing as a result of international legislation. The European Directive on the Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) in electronic and electrical equipment is having a global effect on the reduction of hazardous substances. Mirror legislation is under development in China and is being considered for Australia. Fisher & Paykel manufactures in New Zealand for international markets where such legislation is being introduced. The company has been working on this issue for many years and is phasing out the use of lead, hexavalent chromium, brominated flame retardants, and cadmium for those markets. It can be expected that these changes will flow though to all Fisher & Paykel production, irrespective of market although this has not been finally decided and will depend on the market. Imported whiteware is coming predominantly from Australia, China and Italy. Germany represents a further 10% of imported product.

Production facilities overseas are increasingly manufacturing for international markets, including the EU market, and may not create separate production lines or models to meet the requirements of each country or jurisdiction. However, there is a real and significant risk that some suppliers will dump older (non-EU RoHS compliant) product into New Zealand and Australia should there be an absence of any local regulatory requirements in harmony with the RoHS Directive. Therefore, while the logic might suggest that most producers will manufacture to the most stringent regulatory requirements (eg EU RoHS), it can not be assumed that RoHS compliance in the EU automatically translates to improved product in other countries or jurisdictions where environmental legislation and/or regulations are weaker or in development.

3.3 Relevance of energy efficiency and ozone-depleting substances

The lifecycle of an item of whiteware describes the complete path of that product's existence, from cradle to grave. The major stages of the lifecycle of a whiteware product are shown in Figure 3, below.

Figure 3. Lifecycle of an item of whiteware

Source: Adapted from Environment Australia, 2001. [Environment Australia (2001) op cit.]

Text description of image

The lifecycle of an item of whiteware is as follows: Raw material is followed by extraction, followed by materials processing, followed by manufacture, then distribution, and finally use.

After use, the product can either be disposed of or recycled, where the materials are fed back into the processing of new whiteware or used in the manufacture of other goods.

When considering the lifecycle of a product that uses significant amounts of energy in its lifetime, such as a washing machine or clothes drier, the environmental impacts of the use phase often outweigh other stages. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a tool developed over the last 15 years to analyse the lifecycle environmental impacts of a product. LCAs of whiteware have shown that most items have their most significant impact on the environment while people are using them rather than when they dispose of them. [Deni Greene Consulting Services (1992),Life Cycle Analysis. A view of the environmental impact of Consumer Products using clothes washing machines as an example. Australian Consumers' Association.] This means that consumers have the greatest ability to change the environmental impact of whiteware by choosing energy efficient products and by using settings such as warm or, where appropriate, cold water instead of hot.

Figure 4. LCA results showing environmental impact (CO2 emissions) of a refrigerator and air conditioner showing the majority of impact during use phase

Source: Toshiba - www.toshiba.co.jp.

Text description of image

This diagram demonstrates that the lifecycle impact from both these items of whiteware is dominated (80% of the total impact for a refrigerator and 97% of the total impact for an air conditioner) by the use stage. Disposal impacts account for less than 10% of the total.

The environmental impact of refrigerators is further complicated by the presence of ozone-depleting substances which can cause significant damage if released from refrigerators in an uncontrolled way. Refrigerators collected for recycling in New Zealand are legally required to have the gas removed for safe destruction before they can be processed. This degassing is usually done at council facilities or by dealers who take back refrigerators from their customers. It could be concluded that these old refrigerators are often being replaced because they have already lost their gas charge and so stopped working. Refrigerators put out for kerbside collection are almost always stripped of their non-ferrous metals (including their copper and aluminium pipe work) before they are collected. In these cases, the refrigerant is always lost to the atmosphere. Such scavenging may also 'deprive' some local councils of revenues and possibly makes their return on remaining "carcasses" less economic.

3.4 Best practice in whiteware product stewardship (collection and processing focus)

Best practice in whiteware product stewardship has the potential to be misread and misrepresented. Best practice can vary depending on numerous factors and what might be described as best practice in one region or country due to available infrastructure might be unachievable in another region where market size, industry capabilities and consumer awareness and action is low.

The information presented below is adapted from the Major Appliances Materials Project (Environment Australia 2001: 59) and reflects a strong commitment to the waste hierarchy as well as specifically dealing with hazardous and toxic substances. It serves as a guide to what the ideal 'wish list' might look like and is relatively consistent with similar studies and assessments from Europe and North America.

1. Collection systems that:

  • ensure separation of appliances from other waste streams to maximise the potential for reuse and recycling (it is noted that in areas with a low population base it may be more appropriate to ensure the amalgamation of appliances with other appropriate waste streams to maximise the economies of scale and facilitate recycling);
  • are paid for by the producer/user, in order to remove the cost burden from local government and ratepayers. While local government can be service providers for appliance collection, they should not bear the financial burden;
  • ensure sufficient volumes to make reuse and recycling viable;
  • are convenient for consumers, to avoid illegal dumping.

2. Appliance degassing for refrigerators, freezers and air conditioners.

3. Sorting of collected appliances into three categories:

  • those that are economically feasible to reuse, with or without repair;
  • those that can be cannibalised or dismantled for the recovery of reuseable parts;
  • those that are only suitable for materials recovery. Appliances falling into the first two categories are transferred to appropriate reuse and recovery organisations (including producers, second-hand dealers, charities and organisations such as Revolve). Materials remaining after cannibalisation are passed onto material recyclers.

Appliances in the third category are transferred directly to material recyclers.

4. Capturing and appropriate treatment of toxic and hazardous substances, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), mercury, lead and ozone-depleting substances (ODS) in insulation material, before recycling. It is noted that there are currently very few facilities around the world for capturing ODSs form insulation material. The process entails having the shredder enclosed and extracting all the air and released gases through an activated carbon filter bank. It may also entail the different treatment of cabinets with CFCs (HCFCs) in the insulation from those without.

5. Separation of materials before recycling, to maximise materials recovery and reduce the amount of shredder floc going to landfill.

6. The adoption of quality and/or environmental management systems at recycling facilities, to minimise the environmental impact of appliance recycling.

7. A feedback loop to manufacturers and importers regarding problems associated with the repair, reuse and recycling of major appliances.

8. The landfilling of only materials that cannot be reused or recycled.

3.5 Summary of observations

The environmental impacts of whiteware disposal in New Zealand are relatively low because there is currently a high rate of diversion of equipment for recycling. The resulting shredder floc has the potential to be an environmental concern, however, some evidence and testing-based facts are currently lacking in New Zealand.

Approximately 30%, by weight, of processed material is shredder floc and is landfilled by scrap metal operators. This residual floc material is made up of mixed plastics, glass and other materials for which there are limited markets and low value. The majority of environmental impacts from whiteware occur during the consumer use phase, primarily due to the energy demands of these products during their lifetime. This also underscores the importance of not extending product life under the guise of waste minimisation if newer products demonstrate higher levels of energy and water efficiency. While durability and product longevity holds great appeal in a generic sense, the environmental impact of not retiring older, inefficient whiteware has the potential to be higher as shown in LCA results.

The ideal scenario is where the product core features high levels of durability and where the electronics or information-intensive aspects, components and 'software' can be upgraded to allow reprogramming for evolving levels of energy and water efficiency.

[ | ]