Ecological Footprints of New Zealand and its Regions

Preface

Acknowledgements

Executive Summary

1 Introduction

2 Methodology

3 New Zealand's Ecological Footprint

4 Northland's Ecological Footprint

5 Auckland's Ecological Footprint

6 Waikato's Ecological Footprint

7 Bay of Plenty's Ecological Footprint

8 Gisborne's Ecological Footprint

9 Hawke's Bay's Ecological Footprint

10 Taranaki's Ecological Footprint

11 Manawatu-Wanganui's Ecological Footprint

12 Wellington's Ecological Footprint

13 Marlborough's Ecological Footprint

14 Tasman's Ecological Footprint

15 Nelson's Ecological Footprint

16 West Coast's Ecological Footprint

17 Canterbury's Ecological Footprint

18 Otago's Ecological Footprint

19 Southland's Ecological Footprint

20 Further Research and Refinements to the Ecological Footprint Analysis

Appendix A: Description of the Interregional Flows Optimisation

References

About the Ministry for the Environment

References

Ayres RU. 2000. Commentary on the utility of the ecological footprint concept. Ecological Economics 32: 347-9.

Bicknell KB, Ball RJ, Cullen R, et al. 1998. New methodology for the ecological footprint with an application to the New Zealand economy. Ecological Economics 27: 149-60.

Borgstrom G. 1967. The Hungry Planet. New York, USA: McMillan.

Borgstrom G. 1973. Harvesting the Earth. New York: Abelard-Schuman.

Brown MT, Uligati S. 1998. Emergy evaluation of the environment: quantitative perspectives on ecological footprints. In: Advances in Energy Studies: Energy flows in ecology and economy pp.223-40. Rome: Museum of Science and Scientific Information.

Bullard C, Herendeen R. 1975. The energy cost of goods and services. Energy Policy 3: 268-78.

Butcher GV. 1986. Cost Benefit Handbook: Regional income output and employment multipliers: their uses and estimates of them. Volume Four. Wellington: Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

Carter AJ, Peet NJ, Baines JT. 1981. Direct and indirect energy requirements of the New Zealand economy. New Zealand Energy Research and Development Committee Report No.55. Auckland: University of Auckland.

Catton W. 1982. Overshoot: Ecological basis of revolutionary change. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.

Costanza R. 1980. Embodied energy and economic valuation. Science 210: 1219-24.

Costanza R. 2000. The dynamics of the ecological footprint concept. Ecological Economics 32: 341-5.

Costanza R, Hannon B. 1989. Dealing with the mixed units problem in ecosystem network analysis. In: F Wulff, JG Field, KH Mann (eds) Network Analysis in Marine Ecology: Methods and Applications pp.90-115. Berlin: Springer.

Daly HE. 1968. On economics as a life science. Journal of Political Economics 76: 392-406.

Energy Efficiency and Conversation Authority. 1997. EECA Energy Use Database Manual. Wellington: Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority.

Ferng JJ. 2001. Using composition of land multiplier to estimate ecological footprints associated with production activity. Ecological Economics 37(2): 159-72.

Folke C, Jansson A, Larsson J, et al. 1997. Ecosystem appropriation by cities. Ambio 26: 167-72.

Giampietro M, Pimentel D. 1991. Energy Analysis Models to Study the Biophysical Limits for Human Exploitation of Natural Processes. In: C Rossi, E Tiezzi (eds) Ecological Physical Chemistry pp.139-84. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Gilliland MW. 1975. Energy analysis and public policy. Science 189: 1051-6.

Hall GMJ, Hollinger DY. 1997. Do the indigenous forests affect the net CO₂ emission policy of New Zealand? New Zealand Forestry 41(4): 24-31.

Hannon B. 1979. Total energy costs in ecosystems. Journal of Theoretical Biology 80: 271-93.

Herendeen R. 1972. The Energy Costs of Goods and Services. Center for Advanced Computation Report No.69. Urbana, Illinois: Center for Advance Computation, University of Illinois.

Herendeen R. 1998. Embodied energy, embodied everything ... now what? In: Advances in Energy Studies: Energy flows in ecology and economy pp.13-48. Rome: Museum of Science and Scientific Information.

Hite JC, Laurent EA. 1971. Empirical study of economic-ecologic linkages in a coastal area. Water Resources Research 7(5): 1070-8.

Hofstetter P. 1992. Personliche Energie-und CO₂-Bilanza (Personal Energy and CO₂ Balance). Zurich, Switzerland: Aktion Klimaschutz Verkehrsclub der Schweiz, Schweizerische Energie-Stiftung.

Holling CS. 1973. Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annual Review Ecology System 4: 1-23.

Hollinger DY, MacLaren JP, Beets PN, et al. 1993. Carbon sequestration by New Zealand plantation forests. New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science 23(2): 194-208.

Hubbard LJ, Brown WAN. 1981. Multipliers from regional non-survey input-output tables for New Zealand. Research Report No.117. Lincoln, Canterbury: Agricultural Economics Research Unit, Lincoln College.

International Federation of Institute for Advanced Study. 1975. Workshop on energy analysis and economics. Report No.9. IFIAS, Stockholm.

Isard W. 1968. Some notes on the linkage of ecological and economic systems. Papers, Regional Science Association 22: 85-96.

Jenson R, Mandeville TD, Karunarate ND. 1977. Generation of Regional Input-Output Tables for Queensland. St Lucia, Queensland: Department of Economics, University of Queensland.

Jensen RC, Mandeville TD, Karunaratne ND. 1979. Regional Economic Planning. London: Crom Helm Ltd.

Kerr GN, Sharp BMH, Gough JD. 1986. Economic Benefits of Mt Cook National Park. Christchurch: Centre for Resource Management, University of Canterbury and Lincoln College.

Lenzen M, Murray SA. 2001. A modified ecological footprint method and its application to Australia. Ecological Economics 37: 229-55.

Leontief W. 1970. Environmental repercussions and the economic structure: an input-output approach. Review of Economics and Statistics 52: 262-71.

Levin SA. 1998. Ecosystems and the biosphere as complex adaptive systems. Ecosystems 1: 431-6.

Loh J (ed). 2000. Living Planet Report 2000. Gland, Switzerland: WWF-World Fund For Nature.

McDermott Fairgray Group Ltd. 2001. International Tourism in New Zealand 2001-2007: A regional perspective. Auckland: McDermott Fairgray Group Ltd.

McDonald GW, Patterson MG. 1999a. EcoLink Users' Guide. Auckland: McDermott Fairgray Group Ltd.

McDonald GW, Patterson MG. 1999b. EcoLink Economic Accounts. McDermott Fairgray Group Ltd, Auckland.

Meadows DH, Meadows DL, Randers J, et al. 1972. Limits to Growth. New York: Universe Books.

Meadows DH, Meadows DL, Randers J. 1992. Beyond the Limits: Global collapse or a sustainable future. London: Earthscan Publications Limited.

Ministry of Agriculture. 1997. Impacts of Dairy Conversions in the Taupo District. Wellington: Rural Resources Unit, MAF Policy, Ministry of Agriculture.

Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. 1999. A National Exotic Forest Description as at 1 April 1998. Wellington: Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry.

Moffatt I. 2000. Ecological footprints and sustainable development. Ecological Economics 32: 359-62.

Moore CI. 1981. An Input-Output Model of Northland's Economy: With applications to forestry. Auckland: University of Auckland, unpublished PhD thesis..

Murray S, Lenzen M. 2002. Improvements to the Ecological Footprint Method. Plenary Presentation to Australian and New Zealand Society for Ecological Economics Conference, 2-4 December 2002, University of Technology, Sydney.

Noss RF. 1991. From endangered species to biodiversity. In: KA Kohm (ed) Balancing on the Brink of Extinction: The Endangered Species Act and lessons for the future pp.227-46. Washington DC: Island Press.

Noss RF, Cooperrider AY. 1994. Saving Nature's Legacy: Protecting and restoring biodiversity. Washington DC: Island Press.

Odum EP. 1996. Ecology and Our Endangered Life-Support Systems. Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates.

Odum HT. 1983. Systems Ecology: An introduction. New York: Wiley and Sons.

Patterson MG, Earle MD. 1985. Energy use in the New Zealand food system. New Zealand Energy Research and Development Committee Report No.110. Auckland: NZERDC, University of Auckland.

Patterson MG, McDonald GW. 1996. Regional land environmental accounting systems in New Zealand, using input-output methodologies. In: Tracking Progress: Linking environment and economy through indicators and accounting systems, Australia Academy Science. Sydney: University of New South Wales.

Patterson MG, McDonald GW. 2002. How Clean and Green is New Zealand Tourism? Lifecycle and future environmental impacts. Project Report to Landcare Research Ltd, Palmerston North.

Patterson MG, Wadsworth C. 1993. Updating New Zealand's Energy Intensity: What happened since 1984 and why? Wellington: Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority.

Peet J. 1991. The Use of Input-Output Methods to Evaluate the Energy Requirements and Environmental Consequences of Economic Activity: A practical introduction. Christchurch, University of Canterbury, unpublished course notes.

Peet NJ. 1985. Direct and indirect energy requirements of the New Zealand economy 1976-77: An energy analysis of the 1976-77 interindustry survey. New Zealand Energy Research and Development Committee Report No.96. Auckland: University of Auckland.

Quotable Value New Zealand. 1998. Unpublished Land Area Data Disaggregated by 99 Use Codes for All Regions in New Zealand. Wellington: Quotable Value New Zealand.

Rees WE. 1992. Ecological footprints and appropriated carrying capacity: what urban economics Leaves out. Environment and Urbanization 4(2): 121-30.

Rees WE. 2000. Eco-footprint analysis: merits and brickbats. EcologicalEconomics 32: 371-4.

Slesser M. 1973. Energy Analysis in Policy Making. New Scientist November, pp.323-30.

Statistics New Zealand. 1991. Inter-Industry Study of the New Zealand Economy 1987. Wellington: Statistics of New Zealand.

Statistics New Zealand. 1996. 1995 Business Directory. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand.

Statistics New Zealand. 1998. 1994-95 Inter-Industry Study of the New Zealand Economy. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand.

Statistics New Zealand. 1998a. Key Statistics - June 1998. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand.

Statistics New Zealand. 1998b. New Zealand Official Yearbook 1998. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand.

Statistics New Zealand. 1998c. Agriculture Statistics 1996. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand.

Statistics New Zealand. 1998d. Sub-National Population Estimates as at 30 June 1998. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand.

Statistics New Zealand. 1998e. A Regional Profile - Northland. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand.

Statistics New Zealand. 1998f. A Regional Profile - Auckland. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand.

Statistics New Zealand. 1998g. A Regional Profile - Waikato. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand.

Statistics New Zealand. 1998h. A Regional Profile - Bay of Plenty. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand.

Statistics New Zealand. 1998i. A Regional Profile - Gisborne. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand.

Statistics New Zealand. 1998j. A Regional Profile - Hawke's Bay. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand.

Statistics New Zealand. 1998k. A Regional Profile - Taranaki. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand.

Statistics New Zealand. 1998l. A Regional Profile - Manawatu-Wanganui. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand.

Statistics New Zealand. 1998m. A Regional Profile - Wellington. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand.

Statistics New Zealand. 1998n. A Regional Profile - Marlborough. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand.

Statistics New Zealand. 1998o. A Regional Profile - Tasman. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand.

Statistics New Zealand. 1998p. A Regional Profile - Nelson. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand.

Statistics New Zealand. 1998q. A Regional Profile - West Coast. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand.

Statistics New Zealand. 1998r. A Regional Profile - Canterbury. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand.

Statistics New Zealand. 1998s. A Regional Profile - Otago. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand.

Statistics New Zealand. 1998t. A Regional Profile - Southland. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand.

Statistics New Zealand. 1999. 1998 Business Directory. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand.

Statistics New Zealand. 2000. New Zealand Yearbook. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand.

Transit New Zealand. 1994. Roading Statistics for the Year Ended June 1994. Wellington: Transit New Zealand.

van den Bergh JCJM, Verbruggen H. 1999. Spatial sustainability, trade and indicators: an evaluation of the ecological footprint. Ecological Economics 29: 61-72.

van Vuuren DP, Smeats EMW. 2000. Ecological footprints of Benin, Bhutan, Costa Rica and the Netherlands. Ecological Economics 34(234): 115-30.

Victor PA. 1972. Economics of Pollution. London: Macmillan.

Vitousek P, Ehrlich P, Ehrlich A, et al. 1986. Human appropriation of the products of photosynthesis. Bioscience 36: 368-74.

Wackernagel M, Rees WE. 1996. Our Ecological Footprint: Reducing human impact on the earth. Philadelphia: New Society Publishers.

Wackernagel M, Rees W. 1997. Perceptual and structural barriers to investing in natural capital: economics from an ecological footprint Perspective. Ecological Economics 20(1): 3-24.

Wackernagel M, Onisto L, Bello P, et al. 1999. National natural capital accounting with the ecological footprint concept. Ecological Economics 29: 375-90.

Wackernagel M, Sliverstein J. 2000. Big things first: focusing on the scale imperative with the ecological footprint. Ecological Economics 32: 391-4.

West GR, Wilkinson JT, Jensen RC. 1980. Generation of Regional Input-Output Tables for the Northern Territory GRIT II. Report to the Northern Territory Department of the Chief Minister. St Lucia, Queensland: Department of Economics, University of Queensland.

Works Consultancy Services. 1996. Transit New Zealand National Traffic Database. Contents and Operation of Database. Transit New Zealand Research Report No.53. Wellington: Transit New Zealand.

World Commission on Environment and Development. 1987. Our Common Future. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Wright DJ. 1975. The natural resource requirements of commodities. Applied Economics 7: 31-9.