You are here: Publications > Land > Draft Toxicological Intake Values >

Archived publication

This publication is no longer current or has been superseded.

References

Introductory chapter and introductory section of Chapter 2

ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry) 2007. Toxicological Profile for Lead. United States Department of Health and Human Services: Atlanta, GA, USA

Baars, AJ, Theelen, PJCM, Janssen, JM, van Apeldorn, ME, Meijrink, MCM, Verdam, L, Zeilmaker, MJ 2001. Re-evaluation of human-toxicological maximum permissible risk levels. RIVM Report 711701 025. National Institute of Public Health and the Environment: Bilthoven, The Netherlands.

CCME 2006. A Protocol for the Derivation of Environmental and Human Health Soil Quality Guidelines. Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment: Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.

Davies, H, Nokes, C, Ritchie, J 2001. A report on the chemical quality of New Zealand’s community drinking water supplies. ESR Technical Report FW0120. Ministry of Health: Wellington.

DEFRA and EA (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs and the Environment Agency) 2002. Soil guideline values for lead contamination. Report SGV 10. Environment Agency: Bristol, UK. Now withdrawn.

EA (Environment Agency) 2008. Human health toxicological assessment of contaminants in soil. Science Report – SC050021/SR2. Environment Agency: Bristol, UK.

EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) 2005. Opinion of the Scientific Committee on a request from EFSA related to a harmonised approach for risk assessment of substances which are both genotoxic and carcinogenic. The EFSA Journal 282: 1–31.

FAO/WHO 2006. Evaluation of certain food contaminants. Sixty-fourth report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. WHO Technical Report Series 930. World Health Organization: Geneva.

IPCS 2004. Principles for modelling dose-response for the risk assessment of chemicals. Draft Environmental Health Criteria. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/ipcs/methods/harmonization/ dose_response/en/ (March 2009).

Kroese, ED, Muller, JJA, Mohn, GR, Dortant, PM, Wester, PW 2001. Tumorigenic effects in Wistar rats orally administered benzo(a)pyrene for two years (gavage studies). Implications for human cancer risks associated with oral exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. RIVM report 658603 010. National Institute of Public Health and the Environment: Bilthoven, The Netherlands.

MfE 1997. Guidelines for Assessing and Managing Contaminated Gasworks Sites in New Zealand. Ministry for the Environment: Wellington.

MfE 1999. Guidelines for Assessing and Managing Petroleum Hydrocarbon Contaminated Sites in New Zealand. Ministry for the Environment: Wellington.

MfE 2005. National Environmental Standard for Contaminated Land: Note of Technical Review Group Workshop. 4–5 August 2005, Ministry for the Environment: Wellington

MfE 2006. Identifying, Investigating and Managing Risks Associated with Former Sheep-dip Sites: A guide for local authorities. Ministry for the Environment: Wellington.

MfE 2010. Draft Methodology for Deriving Soil Guideline Values Protective of Human Health. Ministry for the Environment: Wellington.

MfE and MoH 1997. Health and Environmental Guidelines for Selected Timber Treatment Chemicals. Ministry for the Environment and Ministry of Health: Wellington.

MoH 1995. Drinking Water Standards for New Zealand 1995. Ministry of Health: Wellington.

MoH 2003. NZ Food NZ Children – Key Results of the 2002 National Children’s Nutrition Survey. Ministry of Health: Wellington.

MoH 2005. Drinking Water Standards for New Zealand 2005. Ministry of Health: Wellington.

MoH 2006. Annual Review of Drinking-Water Quality in New Zealand – 2004. Ministry of Health: Wellington.

MoH 2007. Annual Review of Drinking-Water Quality in New Zealand – 2005. Ministry of Health: Wellington.

NCSRP 1996. Canadian Soil Quality Guidelines for Contaminated Sites. Human Health Effects: Lead. National Contaminated Sites Remediation Program: Canada.

NHMRC (National Health and Medical Research Council) 1999. Toxicity Assessment for Carcinogenic Soil Contaminants. National Health and Medical Research Council: Canberra, Australia.

Russell, D, Parnell, W, Wilson, N 1999. NZ Food: NZ People - Key Results from the 1997 National Nutrition Survey. Ministry of Health: Wellington.

US EPA 1994. Technical support document: parameters and equations used in the integrated exposure uptake biokinetic model for lead in children (v.0.99d). EPA 540/R-94/040. United States Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC.

US EPA 1995. Technical Guidance Manual Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/reg3hscd/risk/human/info/solabsg2.htm (December 2007).

US EPA 2005. Guidelines for Carcinogen Risk Assessment. EPA/630/P-03/001B. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Washington.

US EPA 2009. What is an RfD and RfC? Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/iris/help_ques.htm#rfd (December 2008).

Vannoort, RW, Thomson, BM 2005. 2003/2004 New Zealand Total Diet Survey. New Zealand Food Safety Authority: Wellington.

Arsenic

ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry) 2007. Toxicological Profile for Arsenic (Update). United States Department of Health and Human Services: Atlanta, GA, USA. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/spotLights/changeBLL.htm (January 2008).

Basu, A, Mahata, J, Gupta, S, Giri, AK 2001. Genetic toxicology of a paradoxical human carcinogen, arsenic: a review. Mutation Research 488: 171–194.

Davies, H, Nokes, C, Ritchie, J 2001. A report on the chemical quality of New Zealand’s community drinking water supplies. ESR Technical Report FW0120. Ministry of Health: Wellington.

EA (Environment Agency) 2009. Contaminants in soil: Updated collation of toxicological data and intake values for humans: Inorganic arsenic. Science Report SC050021/Tox 1. Environment Agency: Bristol, UK.

Environment Canada 1999. Canadian Soil Quality Guidelines for Arsenic. Scientific Supporting Document. National Guidelines and Standards Office, Environment Canada: Ottawa.

FAO/WHO 1983. Arsenic. WHO Food Additive Series 18. World Health Organization: Geneva.

FAO/WHO 1988. Arsenic. WHO Food Additive Series 24. World Health Organization: Geneva.

Fowler, BA, Chou, C-H S, Jones, RL, Chen, C-J 2007. Arsenic. In: Handbook on the Toxicology of Metals. Academic Press.

FPTCDW (Federal-Provincial-Territorial Committee on Drinking Water) 2006. Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality. Guideline Technical Document: Arsenic. Health Canada: Ottawa.

Health Canada 2003. Quantitative risk assessment for arsenic in drinking water based on the Taiwanese Cohort. Biostatistics Unit, Health Canada.

Health Canada 2005. An update to: Quantitative risk assessment for arsenic in drinking water based on the Taiwanese Cohort. Biostatistics Unit, Health Canada.

Hughes, MF 2002. Arsenic toxicity and potential mechanisms of action. Toxicology Letters 133: 1–16.

IARC 1987. Arsenic and arsenic compounds. In: IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Human, Supplement 7 Overall Evaluations of Carcinogenicity. International Agency for Research on Cancer: Lyon, France. 100. Retrieved from http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs

IARC 2004. Arsenic in drinking water. In: IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans Vol. 84 Some Drinking-water Disinfectants and Contaminants, including Arsenic. International Agency for Research on Cancer: Lyon, France. 39. Retrieved from http://monographs.iarc.fr/ ENG/Monographs

Lowney, YW, Wester, RC, Schoof, RA, Cushing, CA, Edwards, M, Ruby, M 2007. Dermal absorption of arsenic from soils as measured in the rhesus monkey. Toxicological Science 100: 381–392.

Mead, MN 2005. Arsenic: In search of an antidote to a global poison. Environmental Health Perspectives 113: A379–A386.

MfE and MoH 1997. Health and Environmental Guidelines for Selected Timber Treatment chemicals. Ministry for the Environment and Ministry of Health: Wellington.

MoH 2005. Drinking Water Standards for New Zealand Volume 3 Datasheets. Ministry of Health: Wellington.

Morales, KH, Ryan, L, Kuo, T-L, Wu, M-M, Chen, C-J 2000. Risk of internal cancers from arsenic in drinking water. Environmental Health Perspectives 108: 655–661.

NEPC 1999. National Environment Protection (Assessment of Site Contamination) Measure 1999, Schedule B(7a) Guideline on Health-Based Investigation Levels. National Environment Protection Council: Adelaide.

NRC (National Research Council) 1999. Arsenic in Drinking Water. National Academy Press: Washington, DC.

NRC (National Research Council) 2001. Arsenic in Drinking Water (2001 update). National Academy Press: Washington, DC.

Rossman, TG 2003. Mechanism of arsenic carcinogenesis: an integrated approach. Mutation Research 533: 37–65.

Rudel, R, Slayton, TM, Beck, BD 1996. Implications of arsenic genotoxicity for dose response of carcinogenic effects. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology23: 87–105.

US EPA 1988. Special report on ingested inorganic arsenic: Skin cancer; nutritional essentiality. EPA/625/3-87/013. United States Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC.

US EPA 1989. Risk assessment guidance for Superfund Vol. 1 Human Health Evaluation Manual (Part A). EPA/540/1-89/002. United States Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC.

US EPA 1993. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). Arsenic. Oral reference dose assessment last reviewed January 1993. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/iris/index.html (November 2007).

US EPA 1998. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). Arsenic. Carcinogenicity assessment last revised 1998. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/iris/index.html (November 2007).

US EPA 2001. Arsenic in drinking water: Final Rule. Federal Register (66 FR 6976) January 22.

US EPA 2004. Risk assessment guidance for Superfund Vol. 1 Human Health Evaluation Manual (Part E, Supplemental guidance for dermal risk assessment), EPA/540/R/99/005. United States Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC.

US EPA, 2008. Human health risk assessment and ecological effects assessment for the reregistration eligibility decision (RED) document of inorganic arsenicals and/or chromium-based wood preservatives. Memorandum. Office of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances, United States Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC. Retrieved from http://www.regulations.gov/fdmspublic/component/ main?main=DocumentDetail&d=EPA-HQ-OPP-2003-0250-0081.

Vannoort, RW, Thomson, BM 2005. 2003/2004 New Zealand Total Diet Survey. New Zealand Food Safety Authority: Wellington.

Wester, RC, Maibach, HI, Bucks, DAW, Sedik, L, Melendres, J, Wade, M 1993. In vivo and in vitro percutaneous absorption and skin decontamination of arsenic from water and soil. Fundamental and Applied Toxicology 20: 336–340.

WHO 1996. Drinking Water Guideline, 2nd ed Vol. 2: Health Criteria and Other Supporting Information. World Health Organization: Geneva.

WHO 2001. Environmental Health Criteria 224. Arsenic and Arsenic Compounds. International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization: Geneva.

WHO 2003. Arsenic in Drinking Water. Background document for development of WHO guidelines for drinking-water quality. WHO/SDE/WSH/03.04/75. World Health Organization: Geneva.

Cadmium

AMU (European Food Safety Authority Assessment Methodology Unit) 2009. Meta-analysis of Dose-Effect Relationship of Cadmium for Benchmark Dose Evaluation. EFSA Scientific Report (2009) 254, 1–62.

Amzul, B, Julin, B, Vahter, M, Wolk, A, Johanson, G, Åkesson, A 2009. Population toxicokinetic modeling of cadmium for Health Risk Assessment. Environmental Health Perspectives 117: 1293–1301.

ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry) 2008. Toxicological Profile for Cadmium. Draft. United States Department of Health and Human Services: Atlanta, GA, USA.

CODEX 2009. Report of the third session of the CODEX committee on contaminants in food (ALINORM 09/32/41). Retrieved from http://www.codexalimentarius.net/download/report/722/al32_41e.pdf

CONTAM (European Food Safety Authority Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain) 2009. Cadmium in food. The EFSA Journal 980: 1–139.

CSTEE 2001. Opinion on Opinion on: Position Paper on Ambient Air Pollution by Cadmium Compounds – Final Version, October 2000. Opinion expressed at the 24th CSTEE plenary meeting, Brussels, 12 June 2001. Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_risk/committees/sct/docshtml/sct_out107_en.htm

Davies, H, Nokes, C, Ritchie, J 2001. A report on the chemical quality of New Zealand’s community drinking water supplies. ESR Technical Report FW0120. Ministry of Health: Wellington.

DEFRA and EA 2002. Contaminants in soil: Collation of toxicological data and intake values for humans: Cadmium. Report Tox 3. Environment Agency: Bristol, UK.

EA (Environment Agency) 2009. Contaminants in soil: Updated collation of toxicological data and intake values for humans: Cadmium. Science Report SC050021/Tox 3. Environment Agency: Bristol, UK.

EC 2000. Ambient air pollution by As, Cd, and Ni compounds. Position paper. Office for official publications of the European Communities: Luxembourg. Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/ environment/air/pdf/pp_as_cd_ni.pdf

FAO/WHO 1989a. Evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants: Cadmium. WHO Technical Report Series 776. Thirty-third meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. World Health Organization: Geneva.

FAO/WHO 1989b. Toxicological evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants: Cadmium. WHO Food Additive Series 24. Thirty-third meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. World Health Organization: Geneva.

FAO/WHO 1993. Evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants: Cadmium. WHO Technical Report Series 893. Forty-first meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. World Health Organization: Geneva.

FAO/WHO 2000. Toxicological evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants: Cadmium. WHO Food Additives Series 46. Fifty-fifth meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. World Health Organization: Geneva.

FAO/WHO 2004. Toxicological evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants: Cadmium (addendum). WHO Food Additives Series 52. Sixty-first meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. World Health Organization: Geneva.

Henson, MC, Chedrese, PJ 2004. Endocrine disruption by cadmium, a common environmental toxicant with paradoxical effects on reproduction. Experimental Biology and Medicine 229: 383–392.

IARC 1993. Cadmium and cadmium compounds. In: IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans Vol. 58 Beryllium, Cadmium, Mercury, and Exposures in the Glass Manufacturing Industry. International Agency for Research on Cancer: Lyon, France. 119. Retrieved from http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs

Jarup, L, Berglund, M, Elinder, C, Nordberg, G, Vahter M 1998. Health effects of cadmium exposure – a review of the literature and a risk estimate. Scandinavian Journal of Work and Environmental Health 24: supplement 1.

MoH 2005. Drinking Water Standards for New Zealand Volume 3 Datasheets. Ministry of Health: Wellington.

Nawrot, T, Plusquin, M, Hogervorst, J, Roels, H, Cells, H, Thijs, L, Vangronsveld, J, Van Hecke, E, Staessen, JA 2006. Environmental exposure to cadmium and risk of cancer: a prospective population-based study. Lancet Oncology 7: 119–126.

NCSRP (National Contaminated Sites Remediation Program) 1996. Canadian soil quality guidelines for contaminated sites. Human Health Effects: Inorganic cadmium.

NEPC (National Environment Protection Council) 1999. Schedule B (7a) Guideline on Health-based Investigation Limits. Retrieved from http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/44 (March 2009).

Satarug, S, Moore, M 2004. Adverse health effects of chronic exposure to low-level cadmium in foodstuffs and cigarette smoke. Environmental Health Perspectives 112: 1099–1103.

US EPA 1985. Drinking Water Criteria Document on Cadmium. Office of Drinking Water: Washington, DC. (Final draft)

US EPA 1992. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). Cadmium. Carcinogencity assessment last revised 1992. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/iris/index.html (February 2008).

US EPA 1994. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). Cadmium. Oral Rfd last revised 1994. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/iris/index.html (February 2008).

Vannoort, RW, Thomson, BM 2005. 2003/2004 New Zealand Total Diet Survey. New Zealand Food Safety Authority: Wellington.

Wester, RC, Maibach, HI, Sedik, L, Melendres, J, DiZio, D, Wade, M 1992. In vitro percutaneous absorption of cadmium from water and soil into human skin. Fundamental and Applied Toxicology 19: 1–5.

WHO 1992. Environmental Health Criteria 134: Cadmium. International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization: Geneva.

WHO 2000. Air quality guidelines for Europe (2nd ed). WHO Regional Publications European Series No. 91. World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe: Copenhagen.

WHO 2004. Cadmium in drinking water. Background document for development of WHO guidelines for drinking-water quality. WHO/SDE/WSH/03.04/80. World Health Organization: Geneva.

Chromium

ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry) 2000. Toxicological Profile for Chromium. United States Department of Health and Human Services: Atlanta, GA, USA.

Davies, H, Nokes, C, Ritchie, J 2001. A report on the chemical quality of New Zealand’s community drinking water supplies. ESR Technical Report FW0120. Ministry of Health: Wellington.

DEFRA and EA (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs and the Environment Agency) 2002. Contaminants in soil: Collation of toxicological data and intake values for humans: Chromium. Report Tox 4. Environment Agency: Bristol, UK.

Guy, RH, Hostynek, JJ, Hinz, RS, Lorence, CR 1999. Metals and the Skin: Topical Effects and Systemic Absorption. Marcel Dekker: New York.

IARC 1990. Chromium and chromium compounds. In: IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans Vol. 49 Chromium, Nickel and Welding. International Agency for Research on Cancer: Lyon, France. 49. Retrieved from http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs

IOM 2001. Dietary reference intakes for vitamin A, vitamin K, arsenic, boron, chromium, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, vanadium and zinc. A report of the Panel on Micronutrients, Subcommittees on Upper Reference Levels of Nutrients and of Interpretation and Use of Dietary Reference Intakes, and the Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes, Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. National Academy Press: Washington, DC.

McKenzie, RD, Byerrum, RU, Decker, CF, Hoppert, CA, Langham, RF 1958. Chronic toxicity studies: Hexavalent and trivalent chromium administered by drinking water to rats. American Medical Association Archives of Industrial Health 18: 232–234.

MfE and MoH 1997. Health and Environmental Guidelines for Selected Timber Treatment Chemicals. Ministry for the Environment and Ministry of Health: Wellington.

MoH 2005. Drinking Water Standards for New Zealand Volume 3 Datasheets. Ministry of Health: Wellington.

NCSRP 1996. Canadian Soil Quality Guidelines for Contaminated Sites: Human Health Effects: Chromium. The National Contaminated Sites Remediation Program.

NEPC (National Environment Protection Council) 1999. Schedule B (7a) Guideline on Health-based Investigation Limits. Retrieved from http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/44 (March 2009).

NHMRC (National Health and Medical Research Council) 2006. Nutrient Reference Values for Australia and New Zealand including Recommended Daily Intakes. Commonwealth of Australia: Canberra.

Paustenbach, DJ, Sheehan, PJ, Pauli, JM, Wisser, LM, Finley, BL 1992. Review of the allergic contact dermatitis hazed posed by chromium-contaminated soil: identifying a “safe” concentration. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health 37: 177–207.

US EPA 1998a. Toxicological Review of Trivalent Chromium. US EPA: Washington, DC.

US EPA 1998b. Toxicological Review of Hexavalent Chromium. US EPA: Washington, DC.

US EPA 1998c. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). Chromium VI. Oral Rfd, Inhalation RfC and carcinogenicity assessment last revised 1998. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/iris/index.html (December 2007).

US EPA 1998d. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). Chromium III, Insoluble Salts. Oral Rfd, Inhalation RfC and carcinogenicity assessment last revised 1998. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/iris/index.html (December 2007).

WHO 1988. Environmental Health Criteria 61: Chromium. Geneva, International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization.

WHO 2004. Chromium in drinking water. Background document for development of WHO guidelines for drinking-water quality. WHO/SDE/WSH/03.04/04. World Health Organization: Geneva.

WHO 2008. Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality. Vol 1, 3rd edition. World Health Organization: Geneva.

Copper

Araya, M, McGoldrink, MC, Klevay, LM, Strain, JJ, Robson, P, Nielsen, F, Olivares, M, Pizarro, F, Johnson, LA, Poirier, KA 2001. Determination of an acute no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) for copper in water. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 34: 137–145.

Araya, M, Chen, B, Klevay, LM, Strain, JJ, Johnson, LA, Robson, P, Shi, W, Nielson, F, Zhu, H, Olivares, M, Pizarro, F, Haber, LT 2003a. Confirmation of an acute no-observed-adverse-effect and low-observed-adverse-effect level for copper in bottled drinking water in a multi-site international study. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 38: 389–399.

Araya, M, Olivares, M, Pizarro, F, Gonzalez, M, Speisky, H, Uauy, R 2003b.Gastrointestinal symptoms and blood indicators of copper load in apparently healthy adults undergoing controlled copper exposure. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77: 646–650.

ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry) 2004. Toxicological Profile for Copper. United States Department of Health and Human Services: Atlanta, GA, USA.

Baars, AJ, Theelen, PJCM, Janssen, JM, van Apeldorn, ME, Meijrink, MCM, Verdam, L, Zeilmaker, MJ 2001. Re-evaluation of human-toxicological maximum permissible risk levels. RIVM Report 711701 025. National Institute of Public Health and the Environment: Bilthoven, The Netherlands.

Davies, H, Nokes, C, Ritchie, J 2001. A report on the chemical quality of New Zealand’s community drinking water supplies. ESR Technical Report FW0120. Ministry of Health: Wellington.

FAO/WHO 1982a. Evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants. Twenty-sixth report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. WHO Technical Report Series 683. World Health Organization: Geneva. 31–32.

FAO/WHO 1982b. Toxicological evaluation of certain food additives Copper. Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. WHO Food Additives Series 17. World Health Organization: Geneva.

Guy, RH, Hostynek, JJ, Hinz, RS, Lorence, CR 1999. Metals and the Skin: Topical Effects and Systemic Absorption. Marcel Dekker: New York.

IARC 1977. Copper 8-hydroxyquinoline. In: IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans Vol. 15 Some fumigants…and Miscellaneous Industrial Chemicals. International Agency for Research on Cancer: Lyon, France. 103. Retrieved from http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs

IOM 2001. Dietary reference intakes for vitamin A, vitamin K, arsenic, boron, chromium, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, vanadium and zinc. A report of the Panel on Micronutrients, Subcommittees on Upper Reference Levels of Nutrients and of Interpretation and Use of Dietary Reference Intakes, and the Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes. Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. National Academy Press: Washington, DC.

MfE and MoH 1997. Health and Environmental Guidelines for Selected Timber Treatment Chemicals. Ministry for the Environment and Ministry of Health: Wellington.

MoH 1995. Drinking Water Standards for New Zealand Ministry of Health: Wellington.

MoH 2003. NZ Food NZ Children – Key Results of the 2002 National Children’s Nutrition Survey. Ministry of Health: Wellington. Retrieved from http://www.moh.govt.nz

MoH 2005. Drinking Water Standards for New Zealand Volume 3 Datasheets. Ministry of Health: Wellington.

NCSRP 1995. Canadian Soil Quality Guidelines for Contaminated Sites: Human Health Effects: Copper (Total). The National Contaminated Sites Remediation Program.

NEPC (National Environment Protection Council) 1999. Schedule B (7a) Guideline on Health-based Investigation Limits. Retrieved from http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/44 (March 2009).

Pizzarro, F, Olivares M, Uauy, R, Contreras P, Rebelo A, Gidi V 1999. Acute gastrointestinal effects of graded levels of copper in drinking water. Environmental Health Perspectives 107: 117–121.

Pratt, WB, Omdahl, JL, Sorenson, JRJ 1985. Lack of effects of copper gluconate supplementation. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 42: 681–682.

Russell, D, Parnell, W, Wilson, N 1999. NZ Food: NZ People - Key Results from the 1997 National Nutrition Survey. Ministry of Health: Wellington. Retrieved from http://www.moh.govt.nz

US EPA 1991. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). Copper. Carcinogencity assessment last revised 1991. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/iris/index.html (February 2008).

US EPA 2003. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). Copper. Oral Rfd and Inhalation RfC assessment last revised 2003. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/iris/index.html (December 2007).

US EPA 2008. Region 6 Human Health Medium Specific Screening Levels 2008. US EPA. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/Region6/6pd/rcra_c/pd-n/screenvalues.pdf (April 2008).

WHO 1983. Drinking Water Guideline, 1st ed Vol. 2: Health Criteria and Other Supporting Information. World Health Organization: Geneva.

WHO 1996. Trace Elements in Human Nutrition and Health. World Health Organization: Geneva.

WHO 1998. Environmental Health Criteria 200: Copper. International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization: Geneva.

WHO 2004. Copper in drinking water. Background document for development of WHO guidelines for drinking-water quality. WHO/SDE/WSH/03.04/88. World Health Organization: Geneva.

Lead

ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry) 2007. Toxicological Profile for Lead. United States Department of Health and Human Services: Atlanta, GA, USA.

Cavanagh, J 2004. Review of soil acceptance criteria for lead. Landcare Research Contract Report 0405/050. Report prepared for the Auckland Regional Council, Auckland.

Cavanagh, JE, Proffitt, G 2005. Soil acceptance criteria for Sandilands Residential Area. Landcare Research Contract Report LC0405/074. Report prepared for the Christchurch City Council, Christchurch.

CDC 2005. Preventing Lead Poisoning in Young Children. A statement by the Centre for Disease Control and Prevention August 2005. Centre for Disease Control and Prevention: Atlanta, GA, USA.

Davies, H, Nokes, C, Ritchie, J 2001. A report on the chemical quality of New Zealand’s community drinking water supplies. ESR Technical Report FW0120. Ministry of Health: Wellington.

DEFRA and EA (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs and the Environment Agency) 2002a. Contaminants in soil: collation of toxicological data and intake values for humans. Lead. TOX 6. Environment Agency 10. Environment Agency: Bristol, UK.

DEFRA and EA (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs and the Environment Agency) 2002b. Soil guideline values for lead contamination. Report SGV 10. Environment Agency: Bristol, UK. Now withdrawn.

FAO/WHO 1986. Lead (evaluation of health risks to infants and children). WHO Food Additive Series 21. World Health Organization: Geneva. Retrieved from http://www.inchem.org/documents/jecfa/jecmono/v21je16.htm (January 2009).

FAO/WHO 1993. Evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants: Lead. WHO Technical Report Series 837. World Health Organization: Geneva.

FAO/WHO 2000. Evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants: Lead. WHO Food Additives Series 44. World Health Organization: Geneva.

GrØn, C, Andersen, L 2003. Human bioaccessibility of heavy metals and PAH from soil. Environment Project 840. Copenhagen, Denmark Danish Environmental Protection Agency.

Guy, RH, Hostynek, JJ, Hinz, RS, Lorence, CR 1999. Metals and the Skin: Topical Effects and Systemic Absorption. Marcel Dekker: New York.

IARC 2006. Inorganic Lead and Lead Compounds, Vol. 87. International Agency for Research on Cancer: Lyon, France. P. 519.

IPCS 1995. Inorganic Lead. Environmental Health Criteria 165. World Health Organization: Geneva.

Lijzen, JPA, Baars, AJ, Otte, PF, Rikken, MGJ, Swartjes, FA, Verbruggen, EMJ, van Wezel, AP 2001. Technical evaluation of the intervention values for soil/sediment and groundwater. RIVM report 711701 023. National Institute of Public Health and the Environment: Bilthoven, The Netherlands.

MoH 2005. Drinking Water Standards for New Zealand Volume 3 Datasheets. Ministry of Health: Wellington.

MoH 2007. The Environmental Case Management of Lead Exposed Persons: Guidelines for Public Health Services. Ministry of Health: Wellington.

NCSRP 1996. Canadian Soil Quality Guidelines for Contaminated Land. Human Health Effects: Inorganic Lead. National Contaminated Sites Remediation Program: Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.

NEPC 1999. Schedule B (7a) Guideline on Health-based Investigation Limits. National Environment Protection Council: Adelaide, Australia. Retrieved from http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/44 (March 2009).

NZWWA 2003. Guidelines for the Safe Application of Biosolids to Land in New Zealand. New Zealand Water and Wastes Association: Wellington.

Sips, AJAM, Bruil, MA, Dobbe, CJG, van de Kamp, E, Oomen, AG, Pereboom, PKH, Rompelberg, CJM, Zeilmaker, MJ 2001. Bioaccessibility of contaminants from ingested soil in humans. RIVM report 7117012/2001. National Institute of Public Health and the Environment: Bilthoven, The Netherlands.

US EPA 1993. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). Lead. Carcinogenicity assessment last revised 1993. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/iris/index.html (November 2007).

US EPA 1994a. Memorandum: OSWER Directive: Revised interim soil lead guidance for CERCLA sites and RCRA corrective action facilities. OSWER Directive #9355.4–12. United States Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC.

US EPA 1994b. Technical support document: parameters and equations used in the integrated exposure uptake biokinetic model for lead in children (v.0.99d). EPA 540/R-94/040. United States Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC.

US EPA 1996. Soil screening guidance: technical background document. EPA/540/R-95/128. United States Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC.

US EPA 2004a. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). Lead. Oral reference dose assessment last reviewed January 2004. Carcinogenicity assessment last revised 1998. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/iris/index.html (November 2007).

US EPA 2004b. Media-Specific Human Health Screening Levels. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/region6/(November 2004).

US EPA 2004c. Region 9 Preliminary Remediation Goals. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/region9/ (November 2004).

US HUD 1995. Technical Guidelines for the Evaluation and Control of Lead-based Paint Hazards in Housing. United States Department of Housing and Urban Development: Washington, DC.

Vannoort, RW, Thomson, BM 2005. 2003/2004 New Zealand Total Diet Survey. New Zealand Food Safety Authority: Wellington.

WHO 2003. Lead in Drinking Water. Background document for development of WHO guidelines for drinking-water quality. WHO/SDE/WSH/03.04/09. World Health Organization: Geneva.

Mercury

ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry) 1999. Toxicological Profile for mercury. United States Department of Health and Human Services: Atlanta, GA, USA.

CCME 1996. Canadian Soil Quality Guidelines for Contaminated Land. Human Health Effects: Inorganic Mercury. Canadian Council of Ministers for the Environment: Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.

Davies, H, Nokes, C, Ritchie, J 2001. A report on the chemical quality of New Zealand’s community drinking water supplies. ESR Technical Report FW0120. Ministry of Health: Wellington.

EA (Environment Agency) 2009. Updated contaminants in soil: collation of toxicological data and intake values for humans. Mercury. Science Report SC050021. Environment Agency: Bristol, UK.

FAO/WHO 1972. Evaluation of mercury, lead, cadmium and the food additives amaranth, diethylpyrocarbonate and octyl gallate. WHO Food Additives Series 4. World Health Organization: Geneva.

FAO/WHO 1988. Methyl mercury. WHO Food Additives Series 24. World Health Organization: Geneva.

FAO/WHO 2004. Methyl mercury (addendum). WHO Food Additives Series 52. World Health Organization: Geneva.

Guy, RH, Hostynek, JJ, Hinz, RS, Lorence, CR 1999. Metals and the Skin: Topical Effects and Systemic Absorption. Marcel Dekker: New York.

Health Canada 1996. Canadian soil quality guidelines for contaminated sites. Human health effects: inorganic mercury. Report prepared for the National Contaminated Sites Programme.

IARC 1993. Mercury and Mercury Compounds, Vol. 58. International Agency for Research on Cancer: Lyon, France. P. 239.

IPCS (International Programme on Chemical Safety) 1991. Inorganic mercury. Environmental Health Criteria 118. World Health Organization: Geneva.

IPCS 2003. Elemental mercury and inorganic mercury compounds: human health aspects. Geneva, World Health Organization, International Programme on Chemical Safety. Concise International Chemical Assessment Document 50.

MoH 2005. Drinking Water Standards for New Zealand Volume 3 Datasheets. Ministry of Health: Wellington.

NEPC 1999. Schedule B (7a) Guideline on Health-based Investigation Limits. Retrieved from http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/44 (March 2009).

US EPA 1995. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). Mercuric Chloride. Oral reference dose and carcinogenicity assessment last reviewed 2004. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/iris/index.html (January 2009).

Vannoort, RW, Thomson BM 2005. 2003/2004 New Zealand Total Diet Survey. New Zealand Food Safety Authority: Wellington.

WHO 2005. Mercury in drinking water. Background document for development of WHO guidelines for drinking-water quality. WHO/SDE/WSH/05.08/10. World Health Organization: Geneva.

Boron

ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry) 2007. Toxicological Profile for Boron. Draft for public comment. United States Department of Health and Human Services: Atlanta, GA, USA.

Davies, H, Nokes, C, Ritchie, J 2001. A report on the chemical quality of New Zealand’s community drinking water supplies. ESR Technical Report FW0120. Ministry of Health: Wellington.

IPCS 1998. Boron. Environmental Health Criteria 204. World Health Organization: Geneva.

Mangas, S 1998. Derivation of health-based investigation levels for boron and boron-compounds. In: Langley, A, Imray, P, Lock, W, Hill, H (eds) The fourth National Workshop on the Health Risk Assessment and management of contaminated sites. Contaminated Sites Monograph Series No. 7. South Australian Health Commission, Adelaide, Australia.

MfE and MoH 1997. Health and Environmental Guidelines for Selected Timber Treatment Chemicals. Ministry for the Environment and Ministry of Health: Wellington.

MoH 2005. Drinking Water Standards for New Zealand Volume 3 Datasheets. Ministry of Health: Wellington.

US EPA 2004a. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). Boron. Oral reference dose and carcinogenicity assessment last reviewed 2004. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/iris/index.html (January 2009).

US EPA 2004b. Toxicological Review of Boron and Compounds in Support of Summary Information on Integrated Risk Information (IRIS). National Center for Environmental Assessment, Washington, DC.

WHO 2003. Boron in drinking water. Background document for development of WHO guidelines for drinking-water quality. WHO/SDE/WSH/03.04/54. World Health Organization: Geneva.

Total petroleum hydrocarbons

ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry) 1999. Toxicological Profile for Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (TPH). United States Department of Health and Human Services: Atlanta, GA, USA.

CCME (Canadian Council of Ministers for the Environment) 2008. Canada-wide Standard for Petroleum Hydrocarbons (PHC) in Soil: Scientific Rationale. Supporting Technical Document. Canadian Council of Ministers for the Environment.

EA (Environment Agency) 2005. The UK Approach for Evaluating Human Health Risks from Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Soils. Environment Agency: Bristol, UK.

Edwards, DA, Andriot, MD, Amorusa, MA, Tummey, AC, Bevan, CJ, Tveit, A, Hayes, LA, Youngren, SH, Nakles, DV 1997. Development of fraction-specific doses (RfDs) and refernce concentrations (RfCs) for total petroleum hydrocarbons. Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon Criteria Working Group Series Volume 4. Amherst Scientific Publishers: Amherst MA, USA.

GHD 2008. Report for HSLs for Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Soils and Groundwater. Technical Development Guide. Report for CRC Care, Adelaide, Australia.

Gustafson, J, Griffith, J, Orem, D 1997. Development of fraction-specific doses (RfDs) and refernce concentrations (RfCs) for total petroleum hydrocarbons. Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon Criteria Working Group Series, Volume 3. Amherst Scientific Publishers: Amherst, MA, USA.

Kim, D, Andersen, ME, Nylander-French, LA 2006. Dermal absorption and penetration of jet fuel components in humans. Toxicology Letters 165: 11–21.

McCauley, M 2005. Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene in ambient air, Christchurch 2004–2005. Environment Canterbury Report R05/21. Environment Canterbury: Christchurch. Retrieved from http://ecan.govt.nz/publications/Reports/Myles.pdf (Accessed: June 2009).

McDougal, JN, Pollard, DL, Weisman, W, Garrett, CM, Miller, TE 2000. Assessment of skin absorption and penetration of JP-8 jet fuel and its components. Toxicological Sciences 55: 247–255.

MfE 1999. Guidelines for Assessing and Managing Petroleum Hydrocarbon Contaminated Sites in New Zealand. Ministry for the Environment: Wellington.

Payan, J-P, Lafontaine, M, Simon, P, Marquet, F, Champmartin-Gendre, C, Beydon, D, Ferrari, E 2009. In vivo and in vitro percutaneous absorption of [14C]pyrene in Sprague Dawley male rats: skin reservoir effect and consequence on urinary 1-OH pyrene excretion. Archives of Toxicology 83: 739–747.

US EPA 1995. Technical Guidance Manual. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/reg3hscd/risk/human/info/solabsg2.htm (December 2007).

WHO 2008. Petroleum products in Drinking Water. Background document for development of WHO guidelines for drinking-water quality. WHO/SDE/WSH/05.08/123. World Health Organization: Geneva.

Benzene

ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry) 2007. Toxicological Profile for Benzene (Update). Draft for public comment. United States Department of Health and Human Services: Atlanta, GA, USA. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/spotLights/changeBLL.htm (January 2008).

Baars, AJ, Theelen, PJCM, Janssen, JM, van Apeldorn, ME, Meijrink, MCM, Verdam, L, Zeilmaker, MJ 2001. Re-evaluation of human-toxicological maximum permissible risk levels. RIVM Report 711701 025. National Institute of Public Health and the Environment: Bilthoven, The Netherlands.

Crump, KS 1994. Risk of benzene-induced leukemia: a sensitivity analysis of the Pliofilm cohort with additional follow-up and new exposure estimates. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health 42: 219–242.

DEFRA and EA (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs and the Environment Agency) 2003. Contaminants in soil: Collation of toxicological data and intake values for humans: Benzene. Report Tox 11. Environment Agency: Bristol, UK.

Environment Canada 2005. Canadian Soil Quality Guidelines for the Protection of Environmental and Human Health: Benzene. National Guidelines and Standards Office, Environment Canada: Ottawa.

Franz, TJ 1984. Percutaneous absorption of benzene. In: MacFarland, HN, Holdsworth, CE, MacGregor, JA, Call, RW, Lane, ML (Eds). Advances in Modern Environmental Toxicology Vol VI, Applied Toxicology of Petroleum Hydrocarbons. Princeton Scientific Publishers: New Jersey.

IARC 1987. Benzene. In: IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Human, Supplement 7 Overall Evaluations of Carcinogenicity. International Agency for Research on Cancer: Lyon, France. 120. Retrieved from http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs

MfE 1997. Guidelines for Assessing and Managing Contaminated Gasworks Sites in New Zealand. Ministry for the Environment: Wellington.

MfE 1999. Guidelines for Assessing and Managing Petroleum Hydrocarbon Contaminated Sites in New Zealand. Ministry for the Environment: Wellington.

MfE 2002. Ambient Air Quality Guidelines. Ministry for the Environment: Wellington.

MoH 2005. Drinking Water Standards for New Zealand Volume 3 Datasheets. Ministry of Health: Wellington.

NICNAS (National Industrial Chemicals, Notification and Assessment Scheme) 2001. Benzene. Priority Existing Chemical Assessment Report No. 21. Commonwealth of Australia: Canberra.

Skowronski, GA, Turkall, RM, Abdel-Rahmen, MS 1988. Soil adsorption alters bioavailability of benzene in dermally exposed male rats. American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal 49: 506–511.

Smith, MT 1996. The mechanism of benzene-induced leukemia: a hypothesis and speculations on the causes of leukemia. Environmental Health Perspectives 104 (Suppl 6): 1219–1225.

US EPA 1995. Technical Guidance Document, Dermal Exposure from Soil. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/reg3hscd/risk/human/info/solabsg2.htm (January 2008).

US EPA 2000. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). Benzene. Carcinogenicity assessment last revised 2000. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/iris/index.html (December 2007).

US EPA 2002. Toxicological review of benzene (non-cancer effects). EPA/635/R-02/001F. United States Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC.

US EPA 2003. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). Benzene. Oral Rfd and Inhalation RfC assessment last revised 2003. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/iris/index.html (December 2007).

WHO 1993. Environmental Health Criteria 150. Benzene. International Progamme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization: Geneva.

WHO 2000. Air Quality Guidelines. 2nd edn. World Health Organization: Geneva.

WHO 2003. Benzene in Drinking Water. Background document for development of WHO guidelines for drinking-water quality. WHO/SDE/WSH/03.04/24. World Health Organization: Geneva.

Whysner, J 2000. Benzene metabolism and genotoxicity: Benzene genotoxicity. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health (Part A) 61: 347–351.

Benzo(a)pyrene

Abdel-Rahman, MS, Skowronski, GA, Turkall, RM 2002. Assessment of the dermal bioavailability of soil-aged benzo(a)pyrene. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment 8: 429–441.

ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry) 1995. Toxicological Profile for Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons. United States Department of Health and Human Services: Atlanta, GA, USA.

Baars, AJ, Theelen, PJCM, Janssen, JM, van Apeldorn, ME, Meijrink, MCM, Verdam, L, Zeilmaker, MJ 2001. Re-evaluation of human-toxicological maximum permissible risk levels. RIVM Report 711701 025. National Institute of Public Health and the Environment: Bilthoven, The Netherlands.

CalEPA (California EPA) 1997. Public Health Coal for benzo(a)pyrene in drinking water. Pesticide and Environmental Toxicology Section, California EPA.

CONTAM (European Food Safety Authority Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain) 2008. Scientific opinion of the Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain on Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Food. The EFSA Journal 724.

Culp, SJ, Gaylor, DW, Sheldon, WG, Goldstein, LS, Beland, FA 1998. A comparison of the tumors induced by coal tar and benzo(a)pyrene in a 2 year bioassay. Carcinogenesis 19: 117–124.

DEFRA and EA (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs and the Environment Agency) 2002. Contaminants in soil: Collation of toxicological data and intake values for humans: Benzo(a)pyrene. Report Tox 2. Environment Agency: Bristol, UK.

EA (Environment Agency) 2008. Human Health toxicological assessment of contaminants in soil. Science Report – SC050021/SR2. Environment Agency: Bristol, UK.

EC (European Commission) 2002. Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food on the Risks to Human Health of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Food. European Commission: Brussels.

FAO/WHO 1991. Benzo(a)pyrene. WHO Food Additive Series 28. World Health Organization: Geneva.

FAO/WHO 2006a. Summary and Conclusions. Sixty-fourth meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. World Health Organization: Geneva.

FAO/WHO 2006b. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons. In: Safety evaluation of certain contaminants in food. WHO Food Additives Series: 55. World Health Organization: Geneva.

FAO/WHO 2006c. Evaluation of certain food contaminants. Sixty-fourth report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. WHO Technical Report Series 930. World Health Organization: Geneva 2006.

Fitzgerald, DJ, Robinson, NI, Pester, BA 2004. Application of benzo(a)pyrene and coal tar dose-response data to a modified benchmark dose method of guideline development. Environmental Health Perspectives 112: 1341–1346.

Gaylor, DW, Moolgavkar, S, Krewski, D, Goldstein, LS 1998. Recent bioassay result of coal tars and benzo(a)pyrene: Implications for risk assessment. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 28: 178–179.

Gaylor, DW, Culp, SJ, Goldstein, LS, Beland, FA 2000. Cancer risk estimation for mixtures of coal tars and benzo(a)pyrene. Risk Analysis 20: 81–85.

Goldstein, LS 2001. To BaP or not to BaP? That is the question. Environmental Health Perspectives 109: A356–A357.

IARC 1987. Benzo(a)pyrene. In: IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans Vol. 3 Certain Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Heterocyclic Compounds, International Agency for Research on Cancer: Lyon, France. 91. Retrieved from http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs

Knafla, A, Phillipps, KW, Brecher, RW, Petrovic, S, Richardson, M 2006. Development of a dermal cancer slope factor for benzo[a]pyrene. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 45: 159–168.

MfE 1997. Guidelines for Assessing and Managing Contaminated Gasworks Sites in New Zealand. Ministry for the Environment: Wellington.

MfE 1999. Guidelines for Assessing and Managing Petroleum Hydrocarbon Contaminated Sites in New Zealand. Ministry for the Environment: Wellington.

MoH 2005. Drinking Water Standards for New Zealand Volume 3 Datasheets. Ministry of Health: Wellington.

Moody, RP, Jonca, J, Richardson, M, Chu, IH 2007. Contaminated soils(I): In vitro dermal absorption of benzo(a)pyrene in human skin. Journal of Toxicology and Human Health, Part A. 70: 1858–1865.

Neal J, Rigdon RH (1967). Gastric tumours in mice fed benzo(a)pyrene: a quantitative study. Texas Reports on Biology and Medicine, 25: 553–557.

NHMRC (National Health and Medical Research Council) 1999. Toxicity Assessment for Carcinogenic Soil Contaminants. National Health and Medical Research Council: Canberra.

Nisbet, ICT, LaGoy, PK 1992. Toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 16: 290–300.

Pufulete M, Battershill J, Boobis A, Fielder R 2004. Approaches to carcinogenic risk assessment for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: a UK perspective. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 40: 54–66.

Schneider, K, Roller, M, Kalberlah, F, Schumacher-Wolz, U 2002. Cancer risk assessment for oral exposure to PAH mixtures. Journal of Applied Toxicology 22: 73–83.

US EPA 1993. Provisional guidance for quantitative risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. EPA/600/R-93/089. Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office, United States Environmental Protection Agency: Cincinnati, OH, USA.

US EPA 1994. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). Benzo(a)pyrene. Data last revised January 1994. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/iris/index.html (December 2007).

US EPA 2005. Guidelines for Carcinogen Risk Assessment. EPA/630/P-03/001B. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Washington.

Wester, RC, Maibach, HI, Bucks, DAW, Sedik, L, Melendres, J, Liao, C, DiZio, D 1990. Percutaneous absorption of [14C]DDT and [14C]benzo[a]pyrene from soil. Fundamental and Applied Toxicology 15: 510–516.

WHO 1996. Drinking Water Guideline, Vol. 2: Health Criteria and Other Supporting Information. 2nd edn. World Health Organization: Geneva.

WHO 1998a. Environmental Health Criteria 202. Selected Non-heterocyclic Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons. International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization: Geneva.

WHO 1998b. Addendum to Drinking Water Guideline, Vol. 2: Health Criteria and Other Supporting Information. 2nd edn. World Health Organization: Geneva.

WHO 2003. Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in Drinking Water. Background document for development of WHO guidelines for drinking-water quality. WHO/SDE/WSH/03.04/59. World Health Organization: Geneva.

Dieldrin

ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry) 2002. Toxicological Profile for Aldrin and Dieldrin. United States Department of Health and Human Services: Atlanta, GA, USA.

Baars, AJ, Theelen, PJCM, Janssen, JM, van Apeldorn, ME, Meijrink, MCM, Verdam, L, Zeilmaker, MJ 2001. Re-evaluation of human-toxicological maximum permissible risk levels. RIVM Report 711701 025. National Institute of Public Health and the Environment: Bilthoven, The Netherlands.

Davies, H, Nokes, C, Ritchie, J 2001. A report on the chemical quality of New Zealand’s community drinking water supplies. ESR Technical Report FW0120. Ministry of Health: Wellington.

DiMarco, P 1993. The assessment and management of organochlorine insecticides. In: Langley, A, van Alphen, M (eds) Proceedings of the second national workshop on the health risk assessment and management of contaminated sites. Contaminated Sites Monograph 2. South Australian Health Commission: Adelaide.

FAO/WHO 1967. Evaluation of some pesticide residues in food. Dieldrin. 1966 Joint FAO/WHO Meeting on Pesticide Residues. WHO Food Additives Series 67.32. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/World Health Organization: Geneva.

FAO/WHO 1971. 1970 evaluations of some pesticide residues in food. Dieldrin. 1970 Joint FAO/WHO Meeting on Pesticide Residues. WHO Food Additives Series 71.42. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/World Health Organization: Geneva.

FAO/WHO 1977. Aldrin/dieldrin (Pesticide Residues in Food: 1977 Evaluations). 1977 Joint FAO/WHO Meeting on Pesticide Residues. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/World Health Organization: Geneva.

Fitzhugh, OG, Nelson, AA, Quaife, ML 1964. Chronic oral toxicity of aldrin and dieldrin in rats and dogs. Food and Cosmetics Toxicology 2: 551–562.

IARC 1987. Dieldrin. In: IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Human, Supplement 7 Overall Evaluations of Carcinogenicity. International Agency for Research on Cancer: Lyon, France. 196. Retrieved from http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs

MfE 2006. Identifying, Investigating and Managing Risks Associated with Former Sheep-dip Sites: A Guide for Local Authorities. Ref. MFE775. Ministry for the Environment: Wellington.

MoH 2005. Drinking Water Standards for New Zealand Volume 3 Datasheets. Ministry of Health: Wellington.

US EPA 1990. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). Dieldrin. Oral Rfd assessment last revised 1990. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/iris/index.html (December 2007).

US EPA 1993. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). Dieldrin. Carcinogencity assessment last revised 1993. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/iris/index.html (December 2007).

Vannoort, RW, Thomson, BM 2005. 2003/2004 New Zealand Total Diet Survey. New Zealand Food Safety Authority: Wellington.

Walker, AIT, Stevenson, DE, Robinson, J, Thorpe, E, Roberts, M 1969. The toxicology and pharmacodynamics of diedrin (HEOD): Two-year oral exposures of rats and dogs. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 15: 345–373.

WHO 1989. Environmental Health Criteria 91. Aldrin and Dieldrin. International Progamme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization: Geneva.

WHO 2004. Aldrin and dieldrin in drinking water. Background document for development of WHO guidelines for drinking-water quality. WHO/SDE/WSH/03.04/73. World Health Organization: Geneva.

DDT

ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry) 2002. Toxicological Profile for DDT, DDE and DDD. United States Department of Health and Human Services: Atlanta, GA, USA.

Baars, AJ, Theelen, PJCM, Janssen, JM, van Apeldorn, ME, Meijrink, MCM, Verdam, L, Zeilmaker, MJ 2001. Re-evaluation of human-toxicological maximum permissible risk levels. RIVM Report 711701 025. National Institute of Public Health and the Environment: Bilthoven, The Netherlands.

Davies, H, Nokes, C, Ritchie, J 2001. A report on the chemical quality of New Zealand’s community drinking water supplies. ESR Technical Report FW0120. Ministry of Health: Wellington.

Edelbrock, MA, Fernstrom, MJ, Wiliams, KJ 2004. pp-DDE and HCB: mechanisms of toxicity to fetal and embryonic mammals. In: Naz, RK (ed.) Endocrine Disrupters: Effects on Male and Female Reproductive Systems. 2nd edn. CRC Publishing. 102–128.

Environment Canada 1999. Soil Quality Guidelines for DDT. Scientific supporting document. National Guidelines and Standards Office, Environmental Quality Branch, Environment Canada.

FAO/WHO 2000. Pesticide Residues in Food: DDT. International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization: Geneva.

IARC 1991. DDT and associated compounds. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans Vol. 53, Occupational Exposures in Insecticide Application, and Some Pesticides. International Agency for Research on Cancer: Lyon, France. 179. Retrieved from http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs

Laug E, Nelson AA, Fithugh OG, Kunze FM 1950. Liver cell alteration and DDT storage in the fat of the rat induced by dietary levels of 1 to 50 ppm DDT. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapy 98: 268–273.

MfE 1998. Ambient Concentrations of Selected Organochlorines in Soil. Ministry for the Environment: Wellington.

MfE 2006. Identifying, Investigating and Managing Risks Associated with Former Sheep-dip Sites: A Guide for Local Authorities. Ref. MFE775. Ministry for the Environment: Wellington.

MoH 2005. Drinking Water Standards for New Zealand Volume 3 Datasheets. Ministry of Health: Wellington.

US EPA 1988a. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). DDE. Carcinogencity assessment last revised 1988. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/iris/index.html (December 2007).

US EPA 1988b. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). DDD. Carcinogencity assessment last revised 1988. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/iris/index.html (December 2007).

US EPA 1991. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). DDT. Carcinogencity assessment last revised 1991. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/iris/index.html (December 2007).

US EPA 1996. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). DDT. Oral Rfd assessment last revised 1996. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/iris/index.html (December 2007).

Vannoort, RW, Thomson, BM 2005. 2003/2004 New Zealand Total Diet Survey. New Zealand Food Safety Authority: Wellington.

WHO 2004. DDT and its derivatives in drinking water. Background document for development of WHO guidelines for drinking-water quality. WHO/SDE/WSH/03.04/89. World Health Organization: Geneva.

Pentachlorophenol

ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry) 2001. Toxicological Profile for Pentachlorophenol. United States Department of Health and Human Services: Atlanta, GA, USA.

Beard, AP, Rawlings, NC 1998. Reproductive effects in mink (Mustela vison) exposed to the pesticides lindane, carbofuran and pentachlorophenol. Journal of Reproduction and Fertility 113: 95–104.

CCME 1997. Canadian Soil Quality Guidelines for Pentachlorophenol: Environmental and Human Health. Prepared by the CCME Subcommittee on Environmental Quality, Criteria for Contaminated Sites. Canadian Council of Ministers for the Environment: Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.

Cooper, GS, Jones, S 2008. Pentachlorophenol and cancer risk: focussing the lens on specific chlorophenols and contaminants. Environmental Health Perspectives 116: 1001-1008.

Davies, H, Nokes, C, Ritchie, J 2001. A report on the chemical quality of New Zealand’s community drinking water supplies. ESR Technical Report FW0120. Ministry of Health: Wellington.

Goodman, G, Aldous, CN, Rech, CJ. 1998. Pentachlorophenol (PCP) Risk Characterization document. Department of Pesticide Regulation, California Environmental Protection Agency.

Hattemer-Frey H, Travis CC 1989. Pentachlorphenol: Environmental Partitioning and human exposure. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 18: 482–489.

IARC 1991. IARC Summary and Evaluation: Pentachlorophenol. 53: 371.

IARC 1999. IARC Summary and Evaluation: Polychlorophenols and their Sodium Salts. 71: 769.

IPCS 1987. Environmental Health Criteria 71: Pentachlorophenol. World Health Organization: Geneva.

Jekat, FW, Meisel, ML, Eckard, R, Winterhoff, H 1994. Effects of pentachlorophenol (PCP) on the pituitary and thyroidal hormone regulation in the rat. Toxicology Letters 71: 9–25.

Jorens PG, Schepens PJC 1993. Human pentachlorophenol poisoning. Human and Experimental Toxicology 12: 479–495.

MfE and MoH 1997. Health and Environmental Guidelines for Selected Timber Treatment Chemicals. Ministry for the Environment and Ministry of Health: Wellington.

MoH 2005. Drinking Water Standards for New Zealand Volume 3 Datasheets. Ministry of Health: Wellington.

Qiau, GL, Brooks, JD, Riviere, JE. 1997. Pentachlorphenol dermal absorption and disposition from soil in swine: effects of occlusion and skin microorganisms inhibition. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 147: 234–246.

Rawlings, NC, Cook, SJ, Waldbillig, D 1998. Effects of the pesticides carbofuran, chlorpyrifos, dimethoate, lindane, triallate, trifluralin, 2,4-D, and pentachlorophenol on the metabolic endocrine and reproductive endocrine system in ewes. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A, 54: 21–36.

Reigner, BG, Bois, FY, Tozer, TN 1992. Assessment of pentachlorophenol exposure in humans using the clearance concept. Human and Experimental Toxicology 11: 17–26.

Tonkin and Taylor and Sphere 2008. Assessment of Dioxin Contamination at Sawmill Sites. Ministry for the Environment: Wellington.

Umemura, T, Sai-Kato, K, Takagi, A, Hasegwa, R, Kurokawa, Y 1996. Oxidative DNA damage and cell proliferation in the livers of 6C3F1 mice exposed to pentachlorophenol in their diet. Fundamental and Applied Toxicology 30: 285–289.

US EPA 1992. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). Tetrachlorophenol. Oral reference dose and carcinogenicity assessment last reviewed 1992. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/iris/index.html (January 2009).

US EPA 1993. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). Pentachlorophenol. Oral reference dose and carcinogenicity assessment last reviewed 1993. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/iris/index.html (January 2009).

Wester, RC, Maibach, HI, Sedik, L, Melendres, J, Wade, M, DiZio, S 1993. Percutaneous absorption of pentachlorophenol from soil. Fundamental and Applied Toxicology 20: 68–71.

WHO 1984. Guidelines for Drinking Water Vol 2: Health Criteria and Supporting Information. 1st ed. World Health Organization: Geneva.

WHO 1996. Volume 1 – Recommendations. World Health Organization: Geneva

WHO 1998. Addendum to Volume 2 – Health Criteria and Supporting Information. World Health Organization: Geneva.

WHO 2003. Pentachlorophenol in Drinking Water. Background document for development of WHO guidelines for drinking-water quality. WHO/SDE/WSH/03.04/62. World Health Organization: Geneva.

Dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs

ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry) 1998. Toxicological Profile for Dioxins. United States Department of Health and Human Services: Atlanta, GA, USA.

Buckland, SJ, Scobie, S, Heslop, V 1998. Concentrations of PCDDs, PCDFs and PCBs in Retail Foods and an Assessment of Dietary Intake for New Zealanders. Ministry for the Environment: Wellington.

Buckland, SJ, Ellis H, Salter R 1999. Ambient concentrations of selected organochlorines in air. Ministry for the Environment: Wellington.

CCME 2000. Canadian Soil Quality Guidelines for Dioxins and Furans: Environmental and Human Health. Report for Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.

Coles, P, Trichopoulos, D, Pastides, H, Starr, T, Mandel, JS 2003. Dioxin and cancer: a critical review. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 38: 378–388.

Cooper, GS, Jones, S 2008. Pentachlorophenol and cancer risk: focussing the lens on specific chlorophenols and contaminants. Environmental Health Perspectives 116: 1001–1008.

DEFRA and EA (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs and the Environment Agency) 2002. Contaminants in soil: collation of toxicological data and intake values for humans. Dioxins, furans and dioxin-like PCBs. TOX 12. Environment Agency: Bristol, UK.

EC-SCF (European Commission Scientific Committee on Food) 2000. Opinion of the SCF on the risk assessment of dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs in food. SCF/CS/CNTM/DIOXIN/8 Final. European Commission: Brussels, Belgium.

EC-SCF (European Commission Scientific Committee on Food) 2001. Opinion of the SCF on the risk assessment of dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs in food. Update. SCF/CS/CNTM/DIOXIN/20 Final. European Commission: Brussels, Belgium.

FAO/WHO 2002. Safety evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants polychlorinated dibenzodioxins, polychlorinated dibenzofurans, and coplanar polychlorinated biphenyls. Food Additives Series 48. World Health Organization: Geneva.

FSA 2001. Statement on the Tolerable Daily Intake of Dioxins and Dioxin-like Polychlorinated Biphenyls. Committee on Toxicity of Chemicals in Food and the Environment, Food Standards Agency: London. Retrieved from http://cot.food.gov.uk/cotstatements/cotstatementsyrs/cotstatements2001/ dioxinsstate (February 2009).

Garner, CE, Demeter J, Matthews HB 2006. The effect of chlorine substitution on the disposition of polychlorinated biphenyls following dermal administration. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 216: 157–167.

IARC 1997. Polychlorinated dibenzo-para-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans. Summary of data reported and evaluation. IARC Monograph series 69: 33.

IOM (Institute of Medicine of National Academy of Sciences) 2007. Veterans and Agent Orange Update 2006. National Academy of Sciences: Washington, DC.

Jackson, JA, Dilberto, JJ, Birnbaum, LS 1993. Estimation of octanol-water partition coefficients and correlation with dermal absorption for several polyhalogenated aromatic hydrocarbons. Fundamental and Applied Toxicology 21: 334–344.

Mayes BA, Brown GL, Mondello FJ, Holtzclaw KW, Hamilton SB, Ramsey AA 2002. Dermal absorption in rhesus monkeys of polychlorinated biphenyls from soil contaminated with Aroclor 1260. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 35: 289–295.

MfE 2010. Draft Methodology for Deriving Soil Guideline Values Protective of Human Health. Ministry for the Environment: Wellington.

MfE and MoH 1997. Health and Environmental Guidelines for Selected Timber Treatment Chemicals. Ministry for the Environment and Ministry of Health: Wellington.

MoH 2002. Establishment of a maximum intake for dioxin. Public Health Perspectives 5(4): 7.

NAS (National Academy of Sciences) 2006. Review of the EPA’s Assessment of the Health Implications of Exposure to Dioxins. National Academy of Sciences: Washington, DC.

NHMRC (National Health and Medical Research Council) 2002. Dioxins: Recommendations for a Tolerable Monthly Intake for Australians. Commonwealth of Australia: Canberra.

Roy, TA, Hammerstrom, K, Schaum, J 2008. Percutaneous absorption of 2,3,7,8-tetrachloropdibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) from soil. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A 71: 1059–1515.

Roy, TA, Hammerstrom, K, Schaum, J 2009. Percutaneous absorption of 3,3,4,4-tetrachlorobiphenyl (PCB77) from soil. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A 72: 350–357.

Smith, A, Lopipero, P 2001. Evaluation of the Toxicity of Dioxins and Dioxin-like PCBs: A Health Risk Appraisal for the New Zealand Population. Ministry for the Environment: Wellington.

US EPA 2003. Exposure and Human Health Reassessment of 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-Dioxin (TCDD) and Related Compounds National Academy Sciences (NAS) Review Draft. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/ncea/pdfs/dioxin/nas-review/ (February 2009).

US EPA 2009. 2009 Dioxin Reassessment Workshop. Retrieved from http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=203403 (March 2009).

Van den Berg, M, Birnbaum, L, Bosveld, ATC, Brunstrom, B, Cook, P, and 19 other authors 1998. Toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) for PCBs, PCDDs, PCDFs for humans and wildlife. Environmental Health Perspectives 106: 775–792.

Van den Berg, M, van Birgelen, A, Birnbaum, L, Brouwer, B, Carrier G, Dragan Y, and 24 other authors. 2000. Consultation on assessment of the health risk of dioxins; re-evaluation of the tolerable daily intake (TDI): executive summary. Food Additives and Contaminant 17: 222–240.

Van den Berg, M, Birnbaum, L, Denison, M, de Vito, M, Farland, W, Feeley, M, Fiedler, H, Hakansson, Hanberg, A, Haws, L, Rose, M, Safe, S, Schrenk, D, Tohyama, C, Tritscher, A, Yuomisto, J, Tyskland, M, Walker, N, Peterson, RE 2006. The 2005 World Health Organization reevaluation of human and mammalian toxic equivalency factors for dioxins and dioxin-link compounds. Toxicological Sciences 93: 223–241.

Van Leeuwen, FXR, Younes, MM (eds). 2000. Proceedings of the World Health Organization and International Programme on Chemical Safety consultation, 25–29 May 1998, Geneva, Switzerland: Assessment of the Health Risk of Dioxins: Re-evaluation of the Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI). In: Food Additives and Contaminants, 17, 223–369 (whole volume).

Vannoort, RW, Thomson, BM 2005. 2003/2004 New Zealand Total Diet Survey. New Zealand Food Safety Authority: Wellington.

Wester, RC, Maibach, HI, Sedik, L, Melandres, J, Wade, M 1993. Percutaneous absorption of PCBs from soil: in vivo rhesus monkey, in vitro human skin and binding to powdered human stratum corneum. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health 39: 375–382.

WHO 2005. Project for the Re-evaluation of Human and Mammalian Toxic Equivalency Factors (TEFs) for Dioxin and Dioxin-like Compounds. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/ipcs/assessment/ tef_update/en/ (February 2009).

WHO 1998. ECEH–IPCS (European Centre for Environmental Health and International Programme on Chemical Safety) Executive Summary. Assessment of the Health Risk of Dioxins: Re-evaluation of the Tolerable Daily Intake. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/ipcs/publications/en/exe-sum-final.pdf

Draft Toxicological Intake Values for Priority Contaminants in Soil

References

Introductory chapter and introductory section of Chapter 2

Arsenic

Cadmium

Chromium

Copper

Lead

Mercury

Boron

Total petroleum hydrocarbons

Benzene

Benzo(a)pyrene

Dieldrin

DDT

Pentachlorophenol

Dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs